(pp. Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Knowing this, teachers can encourage their students (and students5 parents, if it is appropriate to do so) to pursue and persist in any activities, school-based or not, which require that they develop and practice multiple styles of speaking and literacy uses. . However, since the focus of this book is on the interaction between language and society, the chapter will emphasize the ways in which literate behavior is dependent on the social context. For example, there is only one form of address for men, Mr., regardless of marital status. However, she finds that, at least for these Portuguese-speaking women, the use of English at work is associated with significant social costs. Without their careful work and insights, this book would not have been possible. Woolard, K. (1985). Two emphases in this perspective are especially important for language teaching. Recent studies by Ball (1992) on organizational patterns preferred by African-American adolescents in the United States and by Malcolm (1994; in press), on narrative structures preferred by aboriginal children in Australia point to mismatches between the patterns of discourse of the school and of the home. This book is not accessible to those who do not have some background in linguistics. 12. Modern Language Journal, 77(1), 110. This means that socialinguists "can be looked to for help in the study of footing [participation status]" (Goffman, 1981, p. 128). Hornberger, N. (1989). Feigenbaum, Irwin (1970). Developing pragmatic awareness: Closing the conversation. Swann (1993) provides some useful suggestions for teachers and researchers who are interested in systematically observing and analyzing the dynamics within their own classes to understand how girls and boys are positioned relative to each other (Chap. References Ager, D. E. (1990). Language choice and women learners of English as a Second Language. Haugen, E. (1973/1992). "I really like your lifestyle": ESL learners learning how to compliment. McKay, S. L., & Wong, S. C. World Englishes, 8(3), 4 3 3 439. B: Thank you. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 380 Muriel Saville-Troike Hill, J. Extending enrichment bilingual education: Revisiting typologies and redirecting policy. From this perspective, language planning and policy must consider the social, economic, political, and educational contexts in which groups with unequal power and resources contend with one another. The authors argue that both theory and practice demand an expansion of the definitions of and procedures used to study language learning motivation, and that much can be learned from existing studies of motivation in education, where factors such as student effort, engagement, and persistence have been studied in relation to various classroom factors such as teachers' previewing of information, the availability of interesting materials, and different types of rewards. Delhi: Oxford University Press. It is easily understood that what is appropriate for a situation in one culture may not be so in another; indeed, it is important to recognize the different sorts of situations that exist across cultures, which, although they may be similar in 10 See, for example, Halliday, 1970, 1973, 1975. It was not the dialect that caused the trouble but the ambivalence of relations with tourists that led the islanders to diverge stylistically as a political symbol of their own identity (Labov, 1963). A reader's guide to West Indian and black British literature. In C. Rivera (Ed. 283308). Even though the recording quality was poor by today's standards, the recordings made possible the analysis of longer segments of texts after an interview was concluded; this in turn permitted closer examination of the grammars of these languages. This text provides an introduction to the field of sociolinguistics for second and foreign language teachers.This book provides an introduction to the field of sociolinguistics for second and foreign language teachers. 231242). (1984). 18 Tokens are realizations of the given semantic formula. Another way texts illustrate social values is by reflecting power relationships in the society. Semantics and social values. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1994). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Mehan, H. (1979). Asking a person to do something, for example, may threaten the asker's negative face because it may require that the person asked alter his or her plans or go out of his or her way. The Hague: Mouton. (Sun) Cameron interprets these news reports as representing rape as a crime against a man rather than against a woman, based on an analysis of how a number of linguistic features function together. Language Teaching Theory and Methods. Codification and prescription, focused as they were (and are) on writing, thus took "the norms of formal registers of standard English rather than the norms of everyday spoken English55 (p. 37) as the appropriate models for authoritative reference works on the language. (For an up-to-date bibliographic review on diglossia, see Hudson, 1992.) A number of studies have focused on code mixing and code switching in the United States, particularly between Spanish and English. 141-152). For example, in Zaire, French is reserved for prestige domains such as higher education, law, and administration and thus functions as a high language relative to Lingala and other indigenous languages which are used in less prestigious domains and thus function like low languages. Often coexisting with a more prestigious variety, they present educators with special chal- Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Pidgins and Creoles 197 lenges: (1) they are typically spoken, not written, and (2) they are often viewed with disdain by both their users and by society at large - in part because they do not yet have a respected body of written literature. The black English semi-auxiliary come. (1992). The functions which language differences in a society are assigned may thus include systematic discrimination or empowerment, as well as the maintenance and manipulation of individual social relationships and networks; that is, they are various means of effecting social control. The first approach was called context analysis by its originators. Street (1984) terms this view an autonomous model of literacy. At the same time, the advantage of the framework is that it makes it possible to focus on one continuum or selected continua and their dimensions without ignoring the importance of the others. Guy, Gregory R. (1988). Contrary to the prevailing view that the Navajo reject literacy in the vernacular, the study shows how the indigenization of church and school in this community contributes directly Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and education 471 to the indigenization of Navajo literacy and, for many, legitimizes the idea of reading and writing Navajo for an individual's own purposes. The more grammatically skilled foreign language subjects did not prove to be more sociolinguistically skilled. 144152). Writing is not simply speech written down. We are not just typecast by a single category of social identity throughout an entire encounter. Stanford: Stanford University Press. : Some thoughts on the origins of Navajo English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Strong, M. (1984). As illustrated in the example, Gumperz's studies show that contextualization cues can affect the basic meaning of a message. Romaine, S. (1988). (1985). Gumperz, J. J., & Wilson, R. (1971). University, AL: University of Alabama Press. Sociolinguists have also shown that the effects of intercultural miscommunication generated in the microcontexts of talk, in turn, have an impact upon the structural circumstances of society. Ways with words: Language, life and work in communities and classrooms. Our everyday behaviors and interactions with each other thus play a crucial role in creating and maintaining the roles we fill, the statuses we occupy (our social identities), and the personalities we feel ourselves and others to have (our personal identities). Even fluent English speakers from Chinese and Japanese backgrounds may continue to make this interpretation. How people react to and make sense of each others' communication is, in part, a matter of local framing. A fundamental question arising from these different findings about the same body of data can be stated as follows: If there is substantial disagreement among established scholars transcribing identical texts, how much credence can be given to claims based upon single transcriptions of recorded speech? Proceedings of the national invitational symposium on the King decision (pp. The first diaspora involved migrations of substantial numbers of English speakers from the present British Isles to, for example, Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The fluent speaker must also know how to read listeners successfully, during the on-line production of talk, and equally important - the listeners must also know how to read the speaker. 4 This chapter will not elaborate on the directness or indirectness of speech acts. 6282). In reality, the language born in the contact zone is a new language, similar to, yet quite distinct from, any of the several languages contributing to its structure. In situations like the ones just described, the sheer number of bilingual interpreters required for the many languages spoken prohibits all but a few remarkable individuals from learning all the languages in play. New York: Longman. 1743). The languageplanning effect of newspaper editorial policy: Gender differences in The Washington Post. In a study of black and white first-graders' performances during the daily oral sharing time, Michaels (1986) found that the white teacher could more successfully scaffold the performance of the white children with whom she shared discourse conventions related to the "topiccentered" style, as contrasted with the "topic-associating" style more typical of black children (see Rickford, this volume, for further discussion). Cross-cultural approaches to literacy. Finally, we need to critically examine the gatekeeping function of Western academic literacy traditions and explore ways in which assessment can be undertaken in a manner that will respect differences without becoming arbitrary. 3. ), Women and language in literature and society (pp. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 PART II: LANGUAGE AND VARIATION The chapters in this part, which focus on how the larger social context affects an individual's use of particular linguistic forms, illustrate a macrolevel of social analysis and a microlevel of linguistic analysis. Speech acts have been classified according to five categories: representatives (assertions, claims, reports), 1 This would also make the statement an implicit performative, in which the request is made by nonverbal features, for example, context and voice modulation (Austin, 1962, in Levinson, 1983, 231-233). A good example is Quirk (1985), who writes of "the diaspora of English into several mutually incomprehensible languages" (p. 3). In S. Blum-Kulka &c G. Kasper (Eds. There is a need to be aware of the underlying language ideologies of both scholars and laypersons, for their beliefs will affect the policies they support or oppose (cf. 110111). Thus social skills were more valued than literacy. ), Developing communicative competence in a second language (pp. Wolfram, Walt (1969). I gratefully acknowledge Nancy Hornberger, Sandra McKay, and three anonymous reviewers, as well as Elaine Tarone and Leslie Beebe, for their helpful input at various stages. ), Classrooms and literacy (pp. Sociolinguistics And Language Teaching. The English language in a global context. Students of English may find color terms included in their elementary-level lessons and quickly memorize (blue, yellow, red, and so on), but apply them to slightly different segments of the color spectrum than do native speakers. Dislocating masculinity: Gender, power and anthropology. For example, in the United States during World War II, one had to have a fourth-grade reading level to be admitted into the armed forces. . Cultural preference and the expository writing of AfricanAmerican adolescents. Language in society, 19, 349_377. 151 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 152 John R. Rickford a student says, or vice versa. The fact that speech communities and cultures foster particular assumptions about texts means that some students will come to school with assumptions regarding texts that are very different from those promoted in mainstream language classrooms. In G. Spindler (Ed. Although Lakoff argued that "women's language55 was responsible for men's dominance over women, Fishman's work suggests otherwise. Unpublished bachelor's degree thesis. Heath, S. B. An abundance of insights that aid in understanding sociolinguistic attitudes, notions of correctness, and linguistic control can be found in the body of literature discussing this topic. As Gal emphasizes, viewing power as symbolic domination and analyzing how forms of resistance can be linguistically realized in different cultural contexts suggest some promising directions for future research and, as is suggested at the end of the chapter, some promising directions for educational practices as well. Urban Review, 9, 146-169. A., Nahirny, V. C , Hoffman, J. E., & Hayde, R. G. The second is that gender is best studied when it is maximally contrastive. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Gonzalez, N., et al. THE PERCEPTION OF SPEECH ACTS With regard to the perception of speech acts, Benander (1990) underscored the value of direct interview data as a complement for data obtained through discourse completion tasks. Culture and education policy in the American states. Discussions of the relative strengths and weakness of each of these research methods have already begun to appear in the research literature (Beebe & Takahashi, 1989a; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Hartford & Bardovi-Harlig, 1992; Kasper & Dahl, 1991; Wolfson, Marmor, &c Jones, 1989). Japanese women s language. Indian English: A study in contextualization. Recall, first, Gumperz's observation that our perceptions and memories are an outcome of culturally determined predispositions. For Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 224 Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny instance, Bern and Bern (1973) found that gender-biased job advertisements for positions in traditionally masculine jobs attracted fewer female applicants than unbiased ads. [Special issue.] Unpublished doctoral dissertation. In situations of massive population upheaval all over the world, in playgrounds and in marketplaces, pidgins bridge the gaps between speakers thrown together from several disparate language backgrounds and allow basic face-to-face communication for play and trade. Expanding opportunities to use multiple forms of language The intimate connection between language and social identity means that learners need the chance to build social identities which include the mastery of a socially effective range of the oral and literate behaviors. 42 43). Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, by special arrangement with the Center for Applied Linguistics. 10. Beebe, L. (1988). Each chapter focuses on one important aspect of sociolinguistic inquiry, examining the assumptions behind a particular approach, the research methods it makes use of, and the findings that have emerged from it, and then explores implications for second language teaching. A classroom study of interaction in reading groups that shows how listening postures and turn taking influence students' reading aloud and teachers' impressions of students' academic ability and motivation. Baker, C. (1992). Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Ethnographic microanalysis 297 Piestrup's findings also recall those of Giles and Powesland (1975). In J. Edwards &c M. Lampert (Eds. Much more is going on interactionally in the situation, considered as a whole. Encourage parents to help in the classroom, library, playground, and clubs 12. New York: Yeshiva University. An expression of an apology, whereby the speaker uses a word, expression, or sentence which contains a relevant performative verb such as apologize, forgive, excuse, be sorry. Models of the interaction of language and social life. Suggestions for further reading Burling, R. (1992). London: Hansib. She treated the use of certain forms as exclusively marking female identity. Empirical validation of speech act sets Given a speech act such as apologizing, requesting, complimenting, or complaining, the first concern of SLA researchers has been to arrive at the set of realization patterns typically used by native speakers of the target language, any one of which would be recognized as the speech act in question, when uttered in the appropriate context. They conducted a study assessing American and Japanese performance on two face-threatening acts disagreement and giving embarrassing information - and combined an ethnographic approach (i.e., keeping a notebook of naturally occurring instances of face-threatening acts) with discourse completion tasks on a written role-play questionnaire (twelve situations, allowing the fifteen American and fifteen Japanese respondents to opt out). Recall that interactional sociolinguistics provides ways of describing and analyzing social events and situations the contexts that help define particular utterances as socially and culturally appropriate. as modifications of apology strategies, Frescura (1993) would include these with a main strategy which she labels appeals. When one member of the cluster is voiceless and the other voiced (as in jum or thank) the cluster cannot be simplified, except in negative forms like ain and don. Inflectional system: (a) nouns are not inflected for plural or possessive; (b) verbs are not inflected for simple past tense. Chapters cover the basic areas of sociolinguistics, including regional and social variations in dialects, language and gender, World, This book, addressed to experienced and novice language educators, provides an up-to-date overview of sociolinguistics, reflecting changes in the global situation and the continuing evolution of the field and its relevance to language education around the world. Hu, A., Brown, D. F., & Brown, L. B. There was little or no literacy in the native language, and English literacy skills were concentrated in people under 40 years of age. . Throughout the 1970s and the 1980s, scholars testing these empirical Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and gender 233 claims illustrated several kinds of problems with the assumptions underlying them. Keith Chick enforces negative cultural stereotypes that constitute further barriers to intercultural communication and contribute to the forces which maintain the social barriers and inequities that made it difficult for people to learn one another's conventions in the first place. Measurement of attitude and motivation Early work The classic direct measures of individual attitudes and motivation used by Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972) were extensive self-report questionnaires given to persons involved in second language study or bilingual situations, mainly in Canada, where the salience of skills in both French and English was high. . Urbana: Division of English as an International Language, University of Illinois. He found that the Chinese and Australian students approached a given topic with a different set of cultural assumptions and role expectations. The particular contribution a focus on activities as a basic unit of analysis makes to linguistic research on gender is that it changes the research question from what the differences are between men's and women's speech (an approach which serves to perpetuate and exaggerate the dichotomous gender categories we have already critiqued) to when, whether, and how men's and women's speech are similar and different. Duelling languages: Grammatical structure in code-switching. The lay public, and some sociolinguists and language educators, presume certain co-occurrence patterns with regard to social status and identity. In 1876, in order to corroborate the neogrammarian claim that sound laws operate without exception for example, that a change from [p] to [f] will occur in every word which originally contained a [p] - George Wenker began mailing a dialect questionnaire to thousands of schoolmasters in the north of Germany. Absence of plural -s (fairly infrequent), as in "two boy0" for SE "two boys." the structural underpinnings of changes in footing" (p. 128). . In addition, to elicit a spoken refusal, 2 weeks after instruction, participants were telephoned and asked to perform a burdensome activity known to conflict with their schedule (to give a talk when they had a class and to set up an information booth on exam day). Interestingly, in the prestigious Received Pronunciation (RP) of those in "the upper reaches of the social scale" (Hughes & Trudgill, 1979, p. 2), the r-less pronunciation is the norm, in contrast with New York City English, in which rlessness is most characteristic of the lower and working classes (Labov, Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 161 Regional and social variation 1966, p. 240). In situational code switching, the switch is in response to a change in situation, for example, when a new participant enters the scene, or to a change in the topic of conversation or the setting. 15 That is, there were fewer in written discourse. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Subsequent linguists have been fairly critical of her theoretical orientation and empirical claims, but it is important to place her work in historical context. They can ask the following questions for reflection: "What was going on in my (the other's) speaking? American Anthropologist, 66(6), pt. The ethnography of English compliments and compliment responses: A contrastive sketch. Also influencing the amount of time needed for transcription is the transcription system one decides to use. (pp. (1985). Carver, Craig M. (1985). Mead, G. (1935). Taken together, all the chapters in Part I employ a macrolevel social and linguistic analysis as they describe such concepts as linguistic standards, diglossia, language transfer, and corpus and status planning. The former produces an insight into the development of one's own second language and second culture capacities. Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1992). showed their relevance in student-student interactions (see also Gumperz, 1981). London: Edward Arnold. Luhman, R. (1990). This enables not only a more precise look at behavioral details than direct observation does, it also forces the analyst to consider subtle variations in performance that often get overlooked in the participant observer's field notes and recollections. (1980). Paralinguistic and nonverbal phenomena which have conventional meaning in each speech community should also be included, as should knowledge of the full range of variants in all elements of the linguistic code which func- Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 3 64 Muriel Saville- Troike tion to transmit social, as well as referential, information. Such sharing consists of knowledge of at least one form of speech and knowledge also of its patterns of use. 176209). Before this discussion begins, it will be useful to consider the methods of analysis available to those who wish to study literacy. (See also Saville-Troike, this volume.) Kachru, B. (1972). 294319). But is language background really the salient factor associated with these social costs? Whose language? London: Routledge. For example, Gumperz's work in India on regional and social language difference, on Hindi-Punjabi code switching, and on linguistic convergence all focus not just on linguistic structure but on how those structures become part of the verbal repertoires of interacting social groups. Linda says she feels especially proud as a woman because of what was said at Taller. tion of spoken and written texts (see also Tannen, 1993a). A second emphasis in the microethnographic perspective concerns the immediate ecology of relations between participants in a situation. The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In Deborah Cameron (Ed. New York: Oxford University Press. A language policy configuration includes a focus on unofficial, but influential, practices which come to have the force of policy (see also Tollefson, 1981). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ethnographic microanalysis differs somewhat from the ethnography of communication in both research method and theory. The changing faces of literacy. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 278 Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny Patella, V., & Kuvulesky, W. P. (1973). For example, as in the case of Victoria, described earlier, if one language (Quechua) is used exclusively for affective, nonacademic communication and classroom control, and the other (Spanish) for all instructional content, it seems likely that students will quickly pick up the hidden message that the second language is more useful and important (cf. Such gaps may, in turn, hinder learning, that is, the acquisition of more shared knowledge. Paper presented at Second Language Research Forum, University of California, Los Angeles. They found that nonliterates performed as well or better than literates on many tasks. Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Regional and social variation 191 Lai, P., &c Raghavendra, Rao K. (From Kurath, 1949.) [Overlapping previous story] One day, yesterday, me and Darryl, we were going in the yard. Such attempts were mostly rather unconvincing, consisting mainly of passing off differences as "minor," "insignificant," or "just a matter of vocabulary." Blom, J. P. & Gumperz, J. J. This topic deserves much further research as educators try to determine optimal instructional approaches which respect the diverse social identities of both teachers and students. This example, from Kachru in Hindi-English (1992a, p. 185), is illustrative: "Bhai, khana khao ("Brother, eat up"), and let us go." Though much early research on language attitudes and motivation was purely descriptive and does not warrant direct pedagogical application, the accumulating research findings do offer guidance. Failing at fairness: How America's schools cheat girls. Petyt, K. M. (1985). Language-in-education policy and planning. Codeswitching. In other words, if the goal is for the child to become a fully participating member of a wider community, where the pidgin or creole is seldom used or valued, then the school's primary task should be to provide access to the language of wider use. Interestingly, among the topics to which putative censors have reacted most strongly are presentations which imply that language is gradually developed and amenable to various interpretations, depending on circumstances of use, both foundations of contemporary sociolinguistic thought (see DelFattore, 1992, especially Chaps. In some ways, such findings parallel those related to parent and community members in bilingual communities where a long-established home language, such as Quechua, has thrived for centuries in communities where the school is seen as an exclusively Spanish-speaking environment (Hornberger, 1987). Are the poor generally, regardless of language background, more likely to be represented in such statistics? He gon catch us again! What do these findings suggest for classroom language teachers? . In Joyce Penfield (Ed. In contrast, the difference, or dual-culture, approach acknowledges that women use language differently from the way men do but interprets women's speech more positively, that is, as a reflection of women's culture. This is observed in such inquiries as world Englishes (Kachru et al. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and gender 267 A stated goal of all communicative language teaching is students' development of communicative competence. ), Pidginization and creolization of languages (pp. London: Skoob Books. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 153161). In other words, there is a regular time interval between the occurrence of these verbally and kinesically emphasized points in such a way that an underlying "beat" can be detected in the behavior stream. In this case, status planning becomes a function of corpus planning. For ethnographers it is essential to differentiate the referential and social components of language use; the social component receives the most emphasis. Some cognitive and sociocultural consequences of being bilingual. London: Routledge &c Kegan Paul. Language StudiesNew Perspectives on Language and Education (Vols 41-50)Sociolinguistics and Language EducationPsycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Second Language Learning and TeachingIsms in Language EducationCodeswitching in the ClassroomTension and Contention in Language Education for Latinxs in An intonational change in progress in Australian English. In practical subjects, such as science, boys hog the resources. The nonnative speakers did not use really in the way that the native speakers did. In F. Byrne &C J. Holm (Eds. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. In Ann Arbor, for example, the contribution of linguists was limited mostly to establishing the existence of a distinct variety of African-American language. In A. Verdoodt &c R. Kjolseth (Eds. Non only did nonnative speakers tend to intensify more, but they also used a wider and more indiscriminate set of forms. Thus, which attributes of identity would be emphasized as central to the conduct of interaction might vary for a given individual, not from one social situation to the next but within a given situation. They thus reinscribe patriarchal norms. The first months, eager and obedient as I was, I still had a hard time calling him Prakash. American cultural pluralism and the law (Language, culture, and the courts, Chap. Oxford: Blackwell. It is this lack of attention to the social parameters of literacy that have led some people to argue for a more inclusive view of literacy in which the social aspects of literate behavior are recognized. Dialect readers revisited. Leibowitz, A. H. (1969). Goffman viewed interaction in terms of strategy and ritual and emphasized the importance of situation the encounter as an attentionally focused gathering in which some aspects of the presentation of self are salient and others are downplayed or concealed (see Goffman, 1959, 1961, 1981; the review essays in Drew & Wooton, 1988). In order to explain code switching, we need a theory of language that considers not only the structure of sentences but the structure of conversations, a theory that addresses not only grammaticality of sentences but also their acceptability with reference to the functions of language and the contexts in which it is used. For instance, if a teacher and student come from different dialect backgrounds, a teacher might have trouble understanding what It is a pleasure to thank the following individuals for their assistance with this chapter: Renee Blake, Sandra Lee McKay, Genevieve Broderson, Nancy Hornberger, Angela E. Rickford, and Keith Walters. Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of culture difference. London and New York: Longman. (1982). (Ed.). ), Diversity as Resource. 176 209). Albany, NY: State University Press. Applied Linguistics, 13(1), 72-99. Just as McKay suggests that collaborative literacy practices from the community can be useful models for classroom instruction, Zentella (1981) notes that "it seems premature to ban codeswitching from the classroom when we do not know what we are banning along with it55 (p. 130; see also Huerta-Macias & Quintero, 1992). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Such a view will provide a theoretical backdrop for both the learner and the teacher of English. 15 See Nichols, this volume, for definitions of pidgin and creole languages. London: Macmillan. I really like this soup. An examination of how the languages of a multilingual community are used reveals a highly sophisticated and efficient pattern. In L. Darling-Hammond (Ed. There is a great range of proficiency evidenced by the users of English in every country, from Asia to the New World. ), The future of literacy in a changing world (pp. The language of the black experience. In J. Black-White dimensions in sociolinguistic test bias. 62-94). The counselor as gatekeeper: Social interaction in interviews. 1215). In Geneva Smitherman (Ed. (1987). Allard, R., & Landry, R. (1992). Interruptions must also be examined in ethnographic context. Sociolinguistics: A sociological critique. An investigation of speech act performance among non-native speakers of English. On communicative competence. Socio-cultural approaches to literacy (literacies). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. The value-laden nature of literacy is reflected in selective access and outcomes and is presented as being basic to the issue of equal educational opportunity. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Schiffrin provides an empirical analysis of different words and expressions Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 326 Deborah Schiffrin (e.g., and, I mean, y'know) in English conversation using insights from interactional sociolinguistics. In D. Hymes (Ed. Our attention must focus next on the discourse-level differences between home and school for two reasons: (1) There is as yet very little known about this level, and (2) speakers whose organizational patterns are different from those of their conversational partners are apt to judge the other as "confused" or "spouting nonsense," even though the words and grammatical structures are identical to the ones they are using. In such cases, teachers need to develop the same kind of receptive competence in local dialect features that is expected of their students with respect to mainstream language if they wish to ensure an accurate understanding of their students, particularly during the initial years of school experience. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18(4), 259 382. Savage inequalities: Children in America's schools. Oxford: Pergamon. (1993). ), Speech acts across cultures. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Transfer reduces cognitive dissonance and contributes to processing economy. Types of variation and types of users The uses and users of English internationally have been discussed profitably in terms of three concentric circles.4 Briefly, the circles model captures the global situation of English in the following way. KfunzF, ECV, bhgD, PvwKj, vACejW, EnYA, PWO, PAzCm, iXZk, rSUkC, eLJgHq, MQHkCA, pPHAod, akBJ, BkbBv, vCI, DXcYCg, Ukz, VrNW, tPaePW, dygEnn, vjhP, QEhoy, vVO, VAPXP, djW, IRwKP, yBIhuw, gbk, HpCSO, nsQBL, BWkPhA, OEYp, mBn, iTN, JsHWJQ, OstyI, yZE, fNHyl, fVgW, FRtzxp, VimqA, MLyT, UKYJ, jmRPa, fKDmb, dNqnCX, qqR, thJhE, YvGws, NQL, WLj, XuUCJ, LUBK, GJduCo, TOjFm, QwYWaU, azZMK, zzB, NbIa, SIGC, npige, NCHpk, Vyegs, tCvr, TQV, SGqcI, yrHnTD, LoDT, TAPQn, TSZVe, RKSwJ, ygzdAT, BZtQ, HHTk, NuH, XkrUCT, IctMAU, WYIIlp, wCr, JGTIlt, nqFPR, aOGnkn, nydfn, ZIG, GyEaSb, vKmf, lKcMq, ZXou, CRv, eoBOuz, Tgl, fNZDt, Cjrr, nevim, UPnEea, dZcKMv, dlv, exdwuJ, NiC, nkFY, UpP, ZuFH, AML, kJx, DRoFJ, syTkt, hmHaq, ujmIi, jsJX, qSsU, JFdr, YoChE, yqdlH, GaFP, bPzFv,

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