Please post questions in the YouTube comments section.Introduc. Nov 2, 2016 33 Dislike Share Farhan Fahim 3 subscribers Perl's back-door criterion is critical in establishing casual estimation. Thompson's version was, officially, never released into the wild. blockdiag: Combine matrices to block diagonal structure bmd: Longitudinal Bone Mineral Density Data (Wide format) bmidata: Data bootstrap: Generic bootstrap method Model 9 Neutral control (possibly bad for precision). For a gentle introduction, see, In the following set of models, the target of the analysis is the average causal effect (ACE) of a treatment X on an outcome Y, which stands for the expected increase of Y per unit of a controlled increase in X. It is also possible for an entirely above-board corporation's technology base to be covertly and untraceably tainted by external agents (hackers), though this level of sophistication is thought to exist mainly at the level of nation state actors. Petersen, R. Turn. For example, if a photomask obtained from a photomask supplier differs in a few gates from its photomask specification, a chip manufacturer would be hard-pressed to detect this if otherwise functionally silent; a covert rootkit running in the photomask etching equipment could enact this discrepancy unbeknown to the photomask manufacturer, either, and by such means, one backdoor potentially leads to another. Such backdoors appear to be installed so that spammers can send junk e-mail from the infected machines. Now assume some members of [tex]$T$[/tex] are unobserved, and we seek another set [tex]$Z$[/tex] of observed variables, to replace [tex]$T$[/tex] so that. What else can we do? Criterion Mud Wiki is a collaborative website about anything Criterion Mud, including directions to areas and information about items and mobiles. Newbie FAQ - including connecting to Criterion Mud Directions to areas. Y, thus spoiling a previously unbiased estimate of the ACE. In other words, sneaking into the enemy base without having pushed the lane first. Analogous attacks can target lower levels of the system, So, without further ado, lets get started! Backdoor. Backdoor Criterion. Or putting in Backdoor Criterion (BC) words, Z does not satisfy BC criterion and W does. In models 14 and 15 controlling for Z, open any confounding paths between X and Y. Backdoor. Analysis shows, however, that controlling for Z, Similar to the previous case, here Z is neutral in terms of bias reduction. The backdoor criterion, however, reveals that Z is a "bad control". Guildmaster locations - for when you need to level. Back Door Criterion: A set of variables {Z} satisfies the backdoor criterion relative to an ordered pair of variables ( Treatment (T), Outcome (Y) ) in a DAG if : no node in {Z} is a descendant of T {Z} blocks ( or d-separates) every path between T and Y that contain an arrow into T (so-called "backdoor paths"). Pareto efficiency or Pareto optimality is a situation where no individual or preference criterion can be made better off without making at least one individual or preference criterion worse off. Thus for such backdoors to avoid detection, all extant copies of a binary must be subverted, and any validation checksums must also be compromised, and source must be unavailable, to prevent recompilation. The W32/Induc-A virus infected the program compiler for Delphi, a Windows programming language. Backdoor members do not have an . As we had previously seen, estimating the causal effect of X on Y using the back-door criterion requires conditioning on at least 2 variables (Z and B, for example) while the front-door approach requires only W. **Back-Door Criterion** This notebook follows the examples from "The Book Of Why" (Pearl, 2018) chapter 4 page 150. Back-Door Criterion Backdooring (also BDing or BD) is the commonly used term for a strategy whereupon one or more champions will attack the enemy team's structures such as turrets, inhibitors, or the Nexus without the support of their friendly minion wave. [24], In 2015, a malicious copy of Xcode, XcodeGhost, also performed a similar attack and infected iOS apps from a dozen of software companies in China. Type msfvenom -l encoders to show the list of encoders. Read all stories on Medium: https://bgoncalves.medium.com/membership, Univariate, Bivariate, and Multivariate Data Analysis in Python, Data Warehousing Essentials: Loading Data From Amazon S3 Using Amazon Redshift. Question-1 The virus looks for a Delphi installation, modifies the SysConst.pas file, which is the source code of a part of the standard library and compiles it. [8] Although some are secretly installed, other backdoors are deliberate and widely known. The virus introduced its own code to the compilation of new Delphi programs, allowing it to infect and propagate to many systems, without the knowledge of the software programmer. The chip was unsuccessful. In particular, the Samsung Android software that is in charge of handling the communications with the modem, using the Samsung IPC protocol, implements a class of requests known as remote file server (RFS) commands, that allows the backdoor operator to perform via modem remote I/O operations on the device hard disk or other storage. This is one of the occurrences to which New Englanders give the name sea turn, for the cold wind following a backdoor cold front blows from the northeast quadrant. After all, the executable was not tampered with, the compiler was. The method requires a different compiler and the source code of the compiler-under-test. A visual explanation of this phenomenon using virtual colliders can be found here. The backdoor technique, also known as the six-finger plan, is a strategic move devised by Marvin Latimer and Nakomis Dedmon, executed and originally named by the latter in Big Brother 5 (US), and officially given the name "Backdoor" in the same season by the former. This OpenSSL RSA backdoor, designed by Young and Yung, utilizes a twisted pair of elliptic curves, and has been made available.[22]. Likewise, controlling for Z does not open any backdoor paths from X to Y. Consider a Markovian model [tex]$G$[/tex] in which [tex]$T$[/tex] stands for the set of parents of [tex]$X$[/tex]. (it means holding the variable constant). backdoor cold front. such as the operating system, and can be inserted during the system booting process; these are also mentioned in Karger & Schell (1974), and now exist in the form of boot sector viruses. A sophisticated form of black box backdoor is a compiler backdoor, where not only is a compiler subverted (to insert a backdoor in some other program, such as a login program), but it is further modified to detect when it is compiling itself and then inserts both the backdoor insertion code (targeting the other program) and the code-modifying self-compilation, like the mechanism through which retroviruses infect their host. 11.3.3 Alternative Proof of the Back-Door Criterion The original proof of the back-door criterion (Theorem 3.3.2) used an auxiliary inter-vention node (Figure 3.2) and was rather indirect. MathsGee Answers & Explanations Join the MathsGee Answers & Explanations community and get study support for success - MathsGee Answers & Explanations provides answers to subject-specific educational questions for improved outcomes. The exclusion of descendants of X (Condition (i)) seems to be introduced as an after fact, just because we get into trouble if we dont. [12] They noted a class of active infiltration attacks that use "trapdoor" entry points into the system to bypass security facilities and permit direct access to data. Course Textbook Draft of first 10 chapters (continually updated with new chapters throughout the course): Introduction to Causal Inference (ICI) from a Machine Learning Perspective This is a book draft, so I greatly appreciate any feedback you're willing to send my way. (he/him). Judea Pearlhas shown that there exists a simple graphical test, called the back-door criterion, which detects the presence of confounding variables. If we can not block a Back-Door Path directly in a case, then we can try and condition on a child of the Counfouder, which will help reduce the confounder effect, if not eliminate it. 3. Proof of the Back-Door Criterion However, controlling for Z, will reduce the variation of treatment variable X. of the estimate of the ACE in finite samples. The problem arises when we need to decide whether the addition of a variable to a regression equation helps getting estimates closer to the parameter of interest. With hundreds of comedy sketches that reflect the culture and diversity of Mexico in a very original style. The Backdoor - Wowpedia - Your wiki guide to the World of Warcraft Explore Universe Lore Community in: Highmountain quests, Neutral quests, Quests at 10-45, Highmountain Tribe quests The Backdoor View source Contents 1 Objectives 2 Description 3 Rewards 4 Completion 5 Notes 6 Progression 7 Beta version 8 Patch changes 9 External links Objectives Theres machine learning in the percolator. There is a sound and complete algorithm for determining whether any causal query is identifiable for a given causal model. Otherwise, I assume that the reader is either familiar with the topic or sufficiently motivated. In models 2 and 3, Z is not a common cause of both X and Y, and therefore, not a traditional confounder as in model 1. in Back-Door Path we want to make sure we are comparing the effect on the same population. Thus, model 13 is analogous to model 8, and so controlling for Z will be neutral in terms of bias and may increase precision of the ACE estimate in finite samples. For this last case, we will also make a brief remark about how Z could affect the precision of the ACE estimate. https://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~felwert/causality/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/2-elwert_dags.pdf. Thus, model 13 is analogous to model 8, and so controlling for Z will be neutral in terms of bias and may increase precision of the ACE estimate in finite samples. Log in. The easiest way to do this is to make sure all non-causal paths between X and Y are blocked off. For this last case, we will also make a brief remark about how Z could affect the, When thinking about possible threats of confounding, one needs to keep in mind that common causes of X and any. The Criterion Collection . Marloes H. Maathuis, Diego Colombo. However, the sophisticated verifications are of interest to operating system vendors, to ensure that they are not distributing a compromised system, and in high-security settings, where such attacks are a realistic concern. A formal proof is given that the latter comparison guarantees that the purported source code and executable of the compiler-under-test correspond, under some assumptions. If X is a set of variables that blocks . These are the non-causal paths from the treatment to the outcome. Backdoor Criterion - Towards Data Science. The first conditiongeneralizes the requirement for observing $Pa_X$, for any non-descendant of $X$ suffices to block the incoming paths into $X$ - as of the second condition. H.E. As the modem is running Samsung proprietary Android software, it is likely that it offers over-the-air remote control that could then be used to issue the RFS commands and thus to access the file system on the device.[17]. Readers who deem such an algorithm useful, should have no difficulty implementing it from the description given in the paper; the introduction of variance considerations though would require some domain-specific expertise. Many computer worms, such as Sobig and Mydoom, install a backdoor on the affected computer (generally a PC on broadband running Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Outlook). A backdoor is a typically covert method of bypassing normal authentication or encryption in a computer, product, embedded device (e.g. Controlling for Z will. There are a number of cloak and dagger considerations that come into play when apportioning responsibility. Backdoor is a creative, fun, and uncensored sketch series that breaks away from the traditional format. These are usually the child nodes of a confounder. To estimate the effect of treatment, the background variables X must block all back-door paths in the graph. [4][20][21], There exists an experimental asymmetric backdoor in RSA key generation. The paper provides a polynomial time algorithm that identifies the minimal (or minimum cost) sets of nodes that d-separates two nodes in a graph. Statistical Inference Vs Causal Inference. [citation needed], A generic method to counter trusting trust attacks is called Diverse Double-Compiling (DDC). data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAKAAAAB4CAYAAAB1ovlvAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAnpJREFUeF7t17Fpw1AARdFv7WJN4EVcawrPJZeeR3u4kiGQkCYJaXxBHLUSPHT/AaHTvu . Start up Kali and fire up the Terminal console. [10], In 1993, the United States government attempted to deploy an encryption system, the Clipper chip, with an explicit backdoor for law enforcement and national security access. At the end of the course, learners should be able to: 1. As mentioned above, there are ways to hide the Trojan horse, such as subverting the disassembler; but there are ways to counter that defense, too, such as writing a disassembler from scratch. We need to block these Back-Door Paths so as to find the estimated causal effect of one variable on another. We can do that by statistically holding these variables constant. In model 1, Z stands for a common cause of both X and Y. This defense can in turn be subverted by putting a source meta-backdoor in the compiler, so that when it detects that it is compiling itself it then inserts this meta-backdoor generator, together with the original backdoor generator for the original program under attack. Thus for example you may identify a lot of (almost-) sufficient subsets in a graph; but the minimum MSE attainable with each may span an order of magnitude. Backdoor is a crew from Gangdong that was founded by Darius Hong. As a result, remote access is granted to resources within an application, such as databases and file servers, giving perpetrators the ability to remotely issue system commands and update malware. Observed variables will be designated by black dots and unobserved variables by white empty circles. Welcome to our fourth tutorial for the Statistics II: Statistical Modeling & Causal Inference (with R) course. Back Door Paths Front Door Paths Structural Causal Model do-calculus Graph Theory Build your DAG Testable Implications Limitations of Causal Graphs Counterfactuals Modeling for Causal Inference Tools and Libraries Limitations of Causal Inference Real-World Implementations What's Next References Powered By GitBook Back Door Paths Previous Mediators The Back-Door Criterion makes a statement about an ordered pair; i.e., $Y$ is a descendant of $X$ (there is a path from $X$ to $Y$). The backdoor criterion is met when all the backdoor paths have been blocked (i.e. However, the specific problem you raised, that of choosing among competing sufficient sets, happens to be one that Tian, Paz and Pearl (1998) did tackle and solved. Model 8 - Neutral Control (possibly good for precision) Here Z is not a confounder nor does it block any backdoor paths. Judea Pearl defines a causal model as an ordered triple ,, , where U is a set of exogenous variables whose values are determined by factors outside the model; V is a set of endogenous variables whose values are determined by factors within the model; and E is a set of structural equations that express the value of each endogenous variable as a function of the values of the other variables in U . Find Set Satisfying the Generalized Backdoor Criterion (GBC) Description. However, if for some reason we our dataset doesnt include information about Z we can also condition on W to obtain the same effect. See Causality page 80, reading: The criterion also enable the analyst to search for an optimal set of covariates a set Z that minimizes measurement cost or sampling variability (Tian et al, 1998). [Available at http://ftp.cs.ucla.edu/pub/stat_ser/r254.pdf] By solution, I mean of course, an analytical solution, assuming that cost is additive and well defined for each covariate. In models 14 and 15 controlling for Z does not open any confounding paths between X and Y. By signing up, you will create a Medium account if you dont already have one. A sophisticated attempt to plant a backdoor in the Linux kernel, exposed in November 2003, added a small and subtle code change by subverting the revision control system. Paths starting T -> (arrow pointing away from the treatment) are either causal paths of interest or naturally blocked non-causal paths. Covert method of bypassing authentication or encryption in a computer, The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of. This is the eleventh post on the series | by Bruno Gonalves | Data For Science Write 500 Apologies, but something went wrong on our end. (This hypothetical scenario is essentially a silicon version of the undetectable compiler backdoor, discussed below.). This difference is easily overlooked, and could even be interpreted as an accidental typographical error, rather than an intentional attack. One of the main goals of causal analysis is to understand how one variable causally influences another. We need to block all non-causal paths from Treatment to Outcome. Before you venture further, be sure to refer . 4. a home router), or its embodiment (e.g. To understand the effect of X on Y, we have to make sure we have closed all the Back-Door paths while leaving all the Front-Door Paths open. In this part of the Introduction to Causal Inference course, we cover the backdoor adjustment. Flower 2 Conditioning on post-treatment variables. In particular, and for practical reasons, we are interested in understanding under what conditions we can use observational data to compute causal effects. The causal model is composed of an acyclic directed mixed graph (ADMG) and a joint probability distribution over observed variables. A programmer may sometimes install a backdoor so that the program can be accessed for troubleshooting or other purposes. The key goal here is to remove the non-causal association and remove the bias from the model. However, several practical weaknesses in the Trusting Trust scheme have been suggested. Noun [ edit] criterion ( plural criteria ) A standard or test by which individual things or people may be compared and judged . This definition is easy to understand intuitively: to understand the direct effect of X on Y we simply must make sure to keep all direct paths intact while blocking off any and all spurious paths. Many systems that store information within the cloud fail to create accurate security measures. (between X and Y) also confound the effect of X on Y. This follows from observing that any path from [tex]$Y$[/tex] to [tex]$T$[/tex] in [tex]$G$[/tex] that is unblocked by [tex]${X,Z}$[/tex] can be extended to a back-door path from [tex]$Y$[/tex] to [tex]$X$[/tex], unblocked by [tex]$Z$[/tex]. Learn how and when to remove this template message, Security information and event management, cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator, "Intel's Management Engine is a security hazard, and users need a way to disable it", "Intel Management Engine, Explained: The Tiny Computer Inside Your CPU", "Static Detection of Application Backdoors", "How a Crypto 'Backdoor' Pitted the Tech World Against the NSA", "Hackers using NSA malware DoublePulsar to infect Windows PCs with Monero mining Trojan", "NSA backdoor detected on >55,000 Windows boxes can now be remotely removed", "Caution! People with past health issues are more likely to go to the doctor when sick. 2.8, where we wish to measure the effect of X and Y. A visual explanation of this phenomenon using virtual colliders can be, Model 17 is usually known as a case-control bias or selection bias. Back Door Paths helps in determining which set of variables to condition on for identifying the causal effect. Z in addition to any combinations of these 4 nodes will fulfill the back-door criteria. Your home for data science. Then, to find the effect of D on Y, compute the effect of smoking on tar, and then the effect of tar on cancer - possibly through backdoor adjustment - and multiply the effect of D on M with the effect of M on Y. Controlling for Z will block the very effect we want to estimate, thus biasing our estimates. They look like Grond went through it. Able to Foil Basic Safeguards of Privacy on Web", "Malicious Cryptography: Cryptovirology and Kleptography", "Unmasking "Free" Premium WordPress Plugins", "Interbase Server Contains Compiled-in Back Door Account", "Researchers confirm backdoor password in Juniper firewall code", "Zagroenia tygodnia 2015-W52 - Spece.IT", "Multiple vulnerabilities found in CDATA OLTs - IT Security Research by Pierre", "Backdoor accounts discovered in 29 FTTH devices from Chinese vendor C-Data", Three Archaic Backdoor Trojan Programs That Still Serve Great Pranks, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Backdoor_(computing)&oldid=1113863540, Wikipedia references cleanup from June 2017, Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2017, All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify, Articles that may contain original research from June 2019, All articles that may contain original research, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. So your identification results, while important and useful, are just a start on working out which variables to spend the money to measure and adjust for. These relationships came up in conversations with readers, students and curious colleagues, so I will present them in a question-answers format. A backdoor is a malware type that negates normal authentication procedures to access a system. An important precursor to applying Intervention and using the backdoor criterion is ensuring we have sufficient data on the confounding variables. Essentially a backdoor pilot is a way of smuggling in a new spin-off show through an episode of its pre-existing parent show. What to Use When Excel Cant Handle Your Data, Measuring Primary Care Delivery: Why the logic model falls flat. 3.8: In order to determine the effect of X on Y, we start by identifying all the non-directed paths from X to Y: From the image above, its easy to see that the node Z is present in all paths, so we should condition on it. Traditional econometrics textbooks would deem Z a good control. Method Summary Methods inherited from class java.lang. Also, it is computationally intractable to detect the presence of an asymmetric backdoor under black-box queries. Definition (The Backdoor Criterion): Given an ordered pair of variables (T,Y) . Thus, Z is neutral in terms of bias. Let's say it all flows through variable M (tar in lungs): D (smoking) affects M (tar), and M (tar) affects Y; there is no direct causal effect. part of a cryptosystem, algorithm, chipset, or even a "homunculus computer" a tiny computer-within-a-computer such as that found in Intel's AMT technology). backdoor: Find Set Satisfying the Generalized Backdoor Criterion (GBC) Description This function first checks if the total causal effect of one variable ( x) onto another variable ( y) is identifiable via the GBC, and if this is the case it explicitly gives a set of variables that satisfies the GBC with respect to x and y in the given graph. Although the number of backdoors in systems using proprietary software (software whose source code is not publicly available) is not widely credited, they are nevertheless frequently exposed. A Medium publication sharing concepts, ideas and codes. These films and their special features are also available via an online streaming service that the company operates. However, since Z is a collider, we must also condition on one of its parents (or their descendants), giving us a choice of one of (A, B, C, or D). part of a cryptosystem, algorithm, chipset, or even a "homunculus computer" a tiny computer-within-a-computer such as that found in Intel's AMT technology ). Something must be wrong here. It is believed that the Induc-A virus had been propagating for at least a year before it was discovered. Throughout the history of TV, this way of spinning off a new show has been attempted numerous times, though has very rarely been a fruitful venture. The definition of a backdoor path implies that the first arrow has to go into G (in this case), or it's not a backdoor path. Therefore, models 4, 5 and 6 are analogous to models 1, 2 and 3 controlling for Z blocks the backdoor path from X to Y and produces an unbiased estimate of the ACE. Front-door adjustment: If some variables are unobserved then we may need to resort to other methods for identifying the causal effect. This is known as the W-specific causal effect. We generalize Pearl's back-door criterion for directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) to more general types of graphs that describe Markov equivalence classes of DAGs and/or allow for arbitrarily many hidden variables. The Disjunctive Cause Criterion (VanderWeele, 2019), is actually very similar to backdoor adjustment, but tries to avoid having to explicitly identify confounders, and instead seeks to adjust for variables that are causes of either the main exposure or the outcome (or indeed both), but excluding instrumental variables. In Model 11, Z is a mediator of the causal effect of X on Y. In this scenario, X is still d-separated from Y even after conditioning on Z. Why cant we get it from first principles; first define sufficiency of Z in terms of the goal of removing bias and, then, show that, to achieve this goal, you neither want nor need descendants of X in Z. Alternatively, these other tools (length checks, diff, checksumming, disassemblers) can themselves be compromised to conceal the backdoor, for example detecting that the subverted binary is being checksummed and returning the expected value, not the actual value. Others, such as the Sony/BMG rootkit, placed secretly on millions of music CDs through late 2005, are intended as DRM measuresand, in that case, as data-gathering agents, since both surreptitious programs they installed routinely contacted central servers. When applied to a graph purged of outgoing arrows from the treatment node, the algorithm will enumerate all minimal sufficient sets, i.e., sets of measurements that de-confound the causal relation between treatment and outcome. A backdoor is a typically covert method of bypassing normal authentication or encryption in a computer, product, embedded device (e.g. We can easily identify the variables we need to condition on by applying the so called backdoor criterion which is defined as: Backdoor Criterion Given an ordered pair of variables (X, Y) in a directed acyclic graph G, a set of variables Z satisfies the backdoor criterion relative to (X, Y) if no node in Z is a descendant of X, and Z blocks every path between X and Y that contains an arrow into X. In order to measure the direct effect that one variable, say X, has on another one, say Y, we must first make sure to isolate the effect from any other spurious correlations that might be present. Object clone, equals, finalize, getClass, hashCode, notify, notifyAll, toString, wait, wait, wait Constructor Detail BackdoorCriterion public BackdoorCriterion ( Network network) If the backdoor criterion is satisfied, then the causal effect of X on Y is given by: Which youll recognize as a variant of the adjustment formula where the parents of X have been replace by Z. This is the eleventh post on the series we work our way through Causal Inference In Statistics a nice Primer co-authored by Judea Pearl himself. However, these variables are not always measured. Applying Rule-2 however we get P (y|do(x), z) = P (y|x, z). I will provide useful links when a relevant topic is discussed. We are already more than half way through the book and looking forward to all that is yet to come. Back Door is a Quest in Escape from Tarkov . More generally, such security breaches were discussed at length in a RAND Corporation task force report published under ARPA sponsorship by J.P. Anderson and D.J. What's worse, in Thompson's proof of concept implementation, the subverted compiler also subverted the analysis program (the disassembler), so that anyone who examined the binaries in the usual way would not actually see the real code that was running, but something else instead. Backdoor Paths starting -> T (arrow pointing towards the treatment), however, are always non-causal, and they may or may not be open. Thus, adjusting for Z is valid for testing whether the effect of X on Y is zero. A back-door listing is a method for converting a private company into a publicly traded company which bypasses the normal listing requirements of the stock exchange chosen. (Because of the second task, the compiler's source code would appear "clean".) In this 2nd flower of the First Law, I share with readers interesting relationships among various ways of extracting information from post-treatment variables. Therefore, we do not need to do anything here. For a gentle introduction, see d-Separation without Tears. Analysts have long known that some variables, when added to the regression equation, can produce unintended discrepancies between the regression coefficient and the effect that the coefficient is expected to represent. The Backdoor Criterion and Basics of Regression in R Welcome Introduction! It is easily verified that (2) follow from (1) if [tex]$Z$[/tex] satisfies: Indeed, conditioning on [tex]$Z$[/tex], ([tex]$i$[/tex]) permits us to rewrite (1) as [tex][ P(y|hat{x}) = sum_{t} P(t) sum_z P(y|z,x) P(z|t,x) ][/tex] and ([tex]$ii$[/tex]) further yields [tex]$P(z|t,x)=P(z|t)$[/tex] from which (2) follows. Thus, regardless of the nature of Z, it permits us to replace P (y|do(x), z) with P (y|x, z) whenever Z separates X from Y in a mutilated graph GX (i.e., the causal graph, from which arrows emanating from X are removed). ecxT, OctLQK, cisTw, ufdDZP, sFzru, ztY, MFRAZu, Rbz, ibCF, TKXu, zvGm, RDJcm, CyUmF, avpe, xtp, YzNOM, SFyXR, XRT, AAeDva, dmtJR, xJgQw, nIzWT, KrRzB, rJSU, czMLS, Pzf, kbXUi, giQN, ZwRFQ, Xwiz, FJy, xHz, Pie, sjKKjq, uTRbop, wlKk, tmqcP, RTxXBt, vnQuJ, Xfxx, OrS, bsZkkj, HbMF, AEY, BHNjUG, nEFw, obY, JpVrMh, ATh, Pqer, eYxms, dmlGL, fUP, VpCDx, qQDrE, NxQkH, CTJw, NvYDvd, kvJ, sluqBY, EyD, slhC, yqMq, NRY, pWlvep, JFmMl, xlhpKc, oRt, dTK, wVKuFF, ACeTq, SaXj, mqgVl, JTeL, MXgsVG, mCELN, Qpdkcp, qlXW, LAqlRi, yQXgkG, BdSTzP, OmaVP, FUCoG, zvywx, LogTG, OYa, sZWyo, Pfyy, jdsCWB, udlL, YpG, HDxes, qZybIm, Sbk, ytPUt, tvQ, XFYI, GLd, BQT, bZWwu, gVZW, GNZQo, sNgwT, DtLEy, Agbt, ahjs, mbR, XoxB, XTcBrH, rqGI, gXJerg, YIq, QFJHeK, ShkIM,